Thermal mineral waters are

Wells where mineral waters are extracted constitute a separate group of groundwater sources. Mineral water is distinguished by a high content of active elements of mineral origin and special properties that determine their therapeutic effect on the human body. The mineral waters of Crimea differ in salt (ionic) concentration. gas composition: some of them are thermal - warm and hot (therms). They are of significant interest both scientifically and practically. The waters can be used as drinking medicinal waters and for balneological purposes. However, they are still used to a small extent. Based on the geological and structural conditions and composition of the mineral and thermal waters present in the depths of the Crimean Peninsula, three large hydrogeological areas have been identified:

A. Hydromineral folded region of the mountainous Crimea with the predominant development of sulfate and chloride, partly thermal (in depth) mineral waters, gassing with nitrogen, and subordinately with methane, hydrogen sulfide and rarely carbon dioxide.

B. Kerch hydromineral area of ​​distribution of hydrogen sulfide, nitrogen and methane cold waters in tertiary and underlying sediments (some sources contain carbon dioxide).

B. Hydromineral region of the plain Crimea of ​​hydrogen sulfide, nitrogen, methane and mixed gas composition of brackish and saline waters, cold in the upper and thermal in the deep parts of artesian basins.

Thermal and hyperthermal (with temperatures above 400 C) waters occur in regions with active underground volcanic activity. Thermal waters are used as a coolant for heating systems in residential and industrial buildings and in geothermal power plants. A distinctive feature of thermal waters is considered to be a high content of minerals and saturation with gases.

Thermal waters come to the surface in the form of numerous hot springs (temperatures up to 50-90 ° C), and in areas of modern volcanism they manifest themselves in the form of geysers and steam jets (here, wells at a depth of 500-1000 m reveal water with a temperature of 150-250 ° C), which produce steam-water mixtures and vapors when they reach the surface (Pauzhetka in Kamchatka, Big Geysers in the USA, Wairakei in New Zealand, Larderello in Italy, geysers in Iceland, etc.).

Chemical, gas composition and mineralization Thermal waters are varied: from fresh and brackish hydrocarbonate and hydrocarbonate-sulfate, calcium, sodium, nitrogen, carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulfide to salt and brine chloride, sodium and calcium-sodium, nitrogen-methane and methane, and sometimes hydrogen sulfide.

Since ancient times, thermal waters have been used for medicinal purposes (Roman, Tbilisi baths). In the USSR, fresh nitrogen thermal baths rich in silicic acid are used by famous resorts - Belokurikha in Altai, Kuldur in the Khabarovsk Territory, etc.; carbonic Thermal waters - the resorts of the Caucasian Mineral Waters (Pyatigorsk, Zheleznovodsk, Essentuki), hydrogen sulfide - the Sochi-Matsesta resort. In balneology, thermal waters are divided into warm (subthermal) 20-37 °C, thermal 37-42 °C and hyperthermal St. 42 °C.

In areas of modern and recent volcanism in Italy, Iceland, Mexico, the USSR, the USA, and Japan, a number of power plants operate that use superheated thermal waters with temperatures above 100 °C. In the USSR and other countries (Bulgaria, Hungary, Iceland, New Zealand, USA), thermal waters are also used for heat supply to residential and industrial buildings. buildings, heating greenhouse complexes, swimming pools and for technological purposes (Reykjavik is completely heated by thermal waters). In the USSR, heat supply to microdistricts was organized. Kizlyar, Makhachkala, Zugdidi, Tbilisi, Cherkessk; greenhouse plants in Kamchatka and the Caucasus are heated. In heat supply, thermal waters are divided into low-thermal 20-50 °C, thermal 50-75 °C. high-thermal 75-100 °C.

Mineral waters distributed throughout our country are very diverse in quality. The close connection that exists between the chemical composition of water, the composition of rocks and hydrological conditions allows us to divide them into three large groups. The most common waters are the third group: salty, highly mineralized waters. Mineral waters of therapeutic value have moderate mineralization within the concentration limits of drinking water. Mineral bath waters have increased mineralization up to 120-150 g/kg.

The bulk of medicinal mineral waters are confined to artesian and adartesian pools. In the upper floor of these structures in land areas under humid climate conditions, waters without “specific” components of sulfate and chloride composition are widely developed, less often ferruginous, radon, hydrogen sulfide and sometimes of the “naftusya” type with a high content of organic substances. In areas with an arid climate (Caspian lowland, etc.), in the upper floor of these structures, mainly salty chloride-sulfate waters without “specific” components are developed.

In the lower floor of artesian and adartesian basins with halogen formations, bromide, sometimes iodide, hydrogen sulfide, and radon waters are ubiquitous.

In hydrogeological massifs and admassives in areas not covered by activation (with relatively poorly dissected relief), radon and ferruginous mineral medicinal waters are widespread. In the activated areas in these structures, siliceous thermals are also developed, in places radon and hydrogen sulfide, less often bromide and iodide.

In areas of young and modern volcanism, carbonic medicinal waters of different ion-salt composition and mineralization are formed in different types of hydrogeological structures. Among them are ferrous, arsenic, bromide, iodide, hydrogen sulfide, boron and other varieties.
The potential resources of medicinal mineral waters in Russia are very large. Within the artesian basins of platforms (East European, etc.), mineral waters without “specific” components are widespread: bromide, iodide, as well as hydrogen sulfide, siliceous, etc. The modules of potential resources range from 1 to 50 m3/day-km2. In these regions, the flow rate of wells with mineral waters often reaches 500-600 m3/day, which meets the needs of sanatorium and health institutions.

The total potential resources of carbonic waters amount to 148 thousand m3/day, of which a third (50 thousand m3/day) is located in the Caucasus region. Potential nitrogen thermal resources - 517 thousand m3/day - are mainly concentrated in the Kuril-Kamchatka folded region.

Industrial mineral waters are mainly distributed in artesian (and adartesian) basins, where they are represented by bromine, iodine, iodine-bromine, boron and polycomponent (K, Sr, Li, Rb, Cs) liquid ores.

Significant resources of iodine water are confined to the salt water zone in many artesian basins. They are especially large in the basins of the West Siberian plate (1450 thousand m3/day).
Bromine or iodine-bromine industrial waters are almost universally associated with brines with a salinity of up to 140 g/kg. Strong and ultra-strong brines (from 270 to 400 g/kg) in many pools are associated with polycomponent industrial waters, with very high concentrations of bromine, potassium, strontium, often rare alkaline elements, and sometimes heavy metals (copper, zinc, lead, etc. .). Such brines are especially widespread in basins, the structure of which involves thick strata of halogen formations. These include the basins of the Siberian (Angaro-Lena and Tunguska) and Russian platforms (Pre-Ural, Caspian).

Industrial water - a natural highly concentrated aqueous solution of various elements. For example: solutions of nitrates, sulfates, carbonates, brines of alkali halides. Industrial water contains components whose composition and resources are sufficient to extract these components on an industrial scale. It is possible to obtain metals, corresponding salts, and microelements from industrial waters.

The groundwater, having a temperature of 20°C and higher due to the entry of heat from the deep zones of the earth's crust. Thermal waters come to the surface in the form of numerous hot springs, geysers and steam jets. Due to increased chemical and biological activity, underground thermal waters circulating in rocks are predominantly mineral. In many cases, it is advisable to use groundwater simultaneously for energy, district heating, balneology, and sometimes even for the extraction of chemical elements and their compounds.

Wells where they are mined mineral water, constitute a separate group of groundwater sources. Mineral water is distinguished by a high content of active elements of mineral origin and special properties that determine their therapeutic effect on the human body.

Thermal and hyperthermal (with temperatures above 400 C) waters occur in regions with active underground volcanic activity. Thermal waters are used as a coolant for heating systems in residential and industrial buildings and in geothermal power plants. A distinctive feature of thermal waters is considered to be a high content of minerals and saturation with gases.

Classification of first, second and third order structures in geosynclinal areas, their main elements.

Classification of first, second and third order structures in platform areas, their main elements.

Distinctive features of oil and gas provinces, the largest oil and gas provinces in Russia.

Russia occupies an intermediate position between the poles of “super consumer” – the United States and “super producer” – Saudi Arabia. Currently, the oil industry of the Russian Federation ranks 2nd in the world. In terms of production, we are second only to Saudi Arabia. In 2002, hydrocarbons were produced: oil - 379.6 million tons, natural gas - 594 billion m 3.

On the territory of the Russian Federation there are three large oil and gas provinces: West Siberian, Volga-Ural and Timan-Pechersk.

West Siberian province.

West Siberian is the main province of the Russian Federation. The largest oil and gas basin in the world. It is located within the West Siberian Plain on the territory of the Tyumen, Omsk, Kurgan, Tomsk and partly Sverdlovsk, Chelyabinsk, Novosibirsk regions, Krasnoyarsk and Altai territories, with an area of ​​​​about 3.5 million km 2 The oil and gas content of the basin is associated with sediments of Jurassic and Cretaceous age. Most of the oil deposits are located at a depth of 2000-3000 meters. Oil from the West Siberian oil and gas basin is characterized by a low content of sulfur (up to 1.1%), and paraffin (less than 0.5%), a high content of gasoline fractions (40-60%), and an increased amount of volatile substances.

Currently, 70% of Russian oil is produced in Western Siberia. The main volume is extracted by pumping; flowing production accounts for no more than 10%. It follows from this that the main deposits are at a late stage of development, which makes us think about an important problem in the fuel industry - the aging of deposits. This conclusion is confirmed by data for the country as a whole.

There are several dozen large deposits in Western Siberia. Among them are such well-known ones as Samotlorskoye, Mamontovskoye, Fedorovskoye, Ust-Balykskoye, Ubinskoye, Tolumskoye, Muravlenkovskoye, Sutorminskoye, Kholmogorskoye, Talinskoye, Mortymya-Teterevskoye and others. Most of them are located in the Tyumen region - a kind of core of the region. In the republican division of labor, it stands out as Russia’s main base for supplying its national economic complex with oil and natural gas. More than 220 million tons of oil are produced in the Tyumen region, which is more than 90% of the total production in Western Siberia and more than 55% of the total production in Russia. Analyzing this information, one cannot help but draw the following conclusion: the oil production industry of the Russian Federation is characterized by an extremely high concentration in the leading region.

The oil industry of the Tyumen region is characterized by a decrease in production volumes. Having reached a maximum of 415.1 million tons in 1988, by 1990 oil production decreased to 358.4 million tons, that is, by 13.7%, and the downward trend in production continues to this day.

The main oil companies operating in Western Siberia are LUKOIL, YUKOS, Surgutneftegaz, Sibneft, SIDANKO, TNK.

Volga-Ural province.

The second most important oil province is the Volga-Ural region. It is located in the eastern part of the European territory of the Russian Federation, within the republics of Tatarstan, Bashkortostan, Udmurtia, as well as Perm, Orenburg, Kuibyshev, Saratov, Volgograd, Kirov and Ulyanovsk regions. Oil deposits are located at a depth of 1600 to 3000 m, i.e. closer to the surface compared to Western Siberia, which somewhat reduces drilling costs. The Volga-Ural region accounts for 24% of the country's oil production.

The vast majority of oil and associated gas (more than 4/5) of the region is produced by Tataria, Bashkiria, and the Kuibyshev region. Oil production is carried out at the Romashkinskoye, Novo-Elkhovskoye, Chekmagushskoye, Arlanskoye, Krasnokholmskoye, Orenburgskoye and other fields. A significant part of the oil produced in the fields of the Volga-Ural oil and gas region is supplied through oil pipelines to local oil refineries located mainly in Bashkiria and the Kuibyshev region, as well as in other regions (Perm, Saratov, Volgograd, Orenburg).

The main oil companies operating in the Volga-Ural province: LUKOIL, Tatneft, Bashneft, YUKOS, TNK.

Timan-Pechersk province.

The third most important oil province is Timan-Pechersk. It is located within Komi, the Nenets Autonomous Okrug of the Arkhangelsk Region and partly in adjacent territories, bordering the northern part of the Volga-Ural oil and gas region. Together with the rest, the Timan-Pechersk oil region produces only 6% of the oil in the Russian Federation (Western Siberia and the Ural-Volga region - 94%). Oil production is carried out at the Usinskoye, Kharyaginskoye, Voyvozhskoye, Verkhne-Grubeshorskoye, Yaregskoye, Nizhne-Omrinskoye, Vozeiskoye and other fields. The Timan-Pechora region, like the Volgograd and Saratov regions, is considered quite promising. Oil production in Western Siberia is declining, and hydrocarbon reserves comparable to those in Western Siberia have already been explored in the Nenets Autonomous Okrug. According to American experts, the subsoil of the Arctic tundra stores 2.5 billion tons of oil.

Almost every field, and especially each of the oil and gas bearing areas, differs in its own characteristics in the composition of oil and therefore it is impractical to carry out processing using any “standard” technology. It is necessary to take into account the unique composition of oil to achieve maximum processing efficiency, for this reason it is necessary to build plants for specific oil and gas bearing areas. There is a close relationship between the oil and oil refining industries. However, the collapse of the Soviet Union led to the emergence of a new problem - the severance of external economic ties of the oil industry. Russia found itself in an extremely disadvantageous position, because... is forced to export crude oil due to the imbalance in the oil and oil refining industries (the volume of refining in 2002 was 184 million tons), while prices for crude oil are much lower than for petroleum products. In addition, the low adaptability of Russian factories, when switching to oil that was previously transported to factories in neighboring republics, causes poor-quality processing and large product losses.

25. Methods for determining the age of geological bodies and reconstructing geological events of the past.

Geochronology (from ancient Greek γῆ - earth + χρόνος - time + λόγος - word, doctrine) is a set of methods for determining the absolute and relative age of rocks or minerals. The tasks of this science include determining the age of the Earth as a whole. From these positions, geochronology can be considered as part of general planetology.

Paleontological method The scientific geochronological method, which determines the sequence and date of stages in the development of the earth's crust and the organic world, arose at the end of the 18th century, when the English geologist Smith discovered in 1799 that layers of the same age always contain fossils of the same species. He also showed that the remains of ancient animals and plants are located (with increasing depth) in the same order, although the distances between the places where they are found are very large.

Stratigraphic method The stratigraphic method is based on a comprehensive study of the locations of geological (cultural) layers relative to each other. Based on whether the area of ​​rock under study is located above or below certain layers, its geological age can be determined.